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Research
Below, you'll find some relevant research papers exploring meditation, including those referenced in the manual.
"Toward a Unified Account of Advanced Concentrative Absorption Meditation: A Systematic Definition and Classification of Jhāna." Sparby, Terje and Matthew D. Sacchet. Mindfulness 15 (2024): 1375–1394.
Abstract
Objectives
The jhānas are series of advanced concentrative absorption meditative (ACAM) states brought about by meditation. While previously cultivated mostly in monastic settings, a series of modern meditation manuals both openly discuss the jhānas and describe how they may be attained by laypeople. Simultaneously, the phenomenological and neuroscientific investigation of the jhānas is advancing. Although the descriptions of the jhānas in contemporary jhāna manuals to some degree overlap with one another, there are also significant disagreements. Here our objectives are to identify common features of jhāna in meditation manuals, to identify and discuss disagreements, and to offer an account of jhāna that is both comprehensive and consistent.
Methods
A literature search and review was conducted. The search resulted in eight meditation manuals that provide phenomenologically rich accounts of the full range of the jhānas. Common characteristics and discrepancies in the different accounts of the jhānas have been identified by comparing terms and descriptions.
Results
We offer a general definition of jhāna, distinguish three types of jhāna, and investigate phenomenological dimensions that may be necessary to address in order to comprehensively articulate the experience of ACAM.
Conclusions
To ensure scientific rigor, the study of jhāna needs to be informed by both commonalities and differences in the existing accounts of jhāna. While differences exist, these may also be systematically unified in a way that yields a comprehensive account of ACAM.
"Mind the Hype: A Critical Evaluation and Prescriptive Agenda for Research on Mindfulness and Meditation." Van Dam, Nicholas T. et al. Perspectives on Psychological Science 13 (2017): 36-61. (Sage Journals)
Abstract
During the past two decades, mindfulness meditation has gone from being a fringe topic of scientific investigation to being an occasional replacement for psychotherapy, tool of corporate well-being, widely implemented educational practice, and “key to building more resilient soldiers.” Yet the mindfulness movement and empirical evidence supporting it have not gone without criticism. Misinformation and poor methodology associated with past studies of mindfulness may lead public consumers to be harmed, misled, and disappointed. Addressing such concerns, the present article discusses the difficulties of defining mindfulness, delineates the proper scope of research into mindfulness practices, and explicates crucial methodological issues for interpreting results from investigations of mindfulness. For doing so, the authors draw on their diverse areas of expertise to review the present state of mindfulness research, comprehensively summarizing what we do and do not know, while providing a prescriptive agenda for contemplative science, with a particular focus on assessment, mindfulness training, possible adverse effects, and intersection with brain imaging. Our goals are to inform interested scientists, the news media, and the public, to minimize harm, curb poor research practices, and staunch the flow of misinformation about the benefits, costs, and future prospects of mindfulness meditation.
"Dose–response effects of reported meditation practice on mental-health and wellbeing: A prospective longitudinal study." Van Dam, Nicholas T. and Nicholas I. Bowles. Applied Psychology: Health and Well-Being, 17(4). 2025
Abstract
The popularity of meditation has surged in recent years, driven by the accessibility of digital platforms. In this context, shorter sessions have become common, often accompanied by claims of substantial benefits. The vast differences in practice intensity—from traditional monastic training and residential retreats to multi-week Mindfulness-Based Programs and infrequent digital home practice—raise the question of how much practice is necessary to see meaningful benefits. Our previous analysis of lifetime practice history suggested that 160 hours were required for clinically meaningful improvements in psychological distress and life satisfaction, with more needed for stable changes in affect. However, those findings could not address the effects of newly undertaken practice, the best ways to accumulate experience, or how these effects vary by practice history. This study fills these gaps by examining dose–response relationships in a diverse sample of meditators engaging in self-directed practice in ecologically valid settings, while testing the moderating effects of practice history, personality traits, and meditation goals. One thousand fifty-three participants provided data across nine surveys over a two-month period of prospectively monitored, self-directed meditation practice, followed by a 2- to 4-year follow-up. Using a longitudinal design, we examined associations between meditation practice dose and outcomes including positive and negative affect, psychological distress, and life satisfaction. Meditation practice dose was significantly associated with improvements in well-being, affect, and distress, with practice frequency being a stronger predictor of beneficial outcomes than session duration. During the 2-month prospective period, after controlling for prior lifetime practice, 35 to 65 minutes daily practice was required for meaningful improvements in well-being, and 50 to 80 minutes daily was needed for meaningful improvements in mental health outcomes. Dose–response effects were moderated by lifetime practice experience across all outcomes, while negative emotionality moderated the relationship for mental health-related outcomes. Additionally, valuing mental health as a practice goal moderated dose–response effects for mental health outcomes, and cumulative practice from baseline to follow-up predicted increased valuation of spiritual growth as a practice goal. Our findings indicate that practitioners with varied practice histories, personality traits, and practice goals/motivations benefit from meditation on outcomes measuring mental health and well-being, with such benefits maintained over a 2–4 year follow-up period.
"Heartbeat-Evoked Potentials as a Neural Marker of Meditative Depth" Nath, M., Becattini, V., Laukkonen, R. E., Ganesan, S., Hanley, A., Holecek, A., … Reggente, N. OSF Preprints (2025, March 11).
Abstract
Meditation is suggested to enhance psychological well-being through sustained cultivation of interoceptive attention and emotion regulation, yet objective neurophysiological markers of meditative depth remain inconsistent and largely CNS-focused, overlooking interoceptive mechanisms. Heartbeat-evoked potentials (HEPs)—cortical responses to cardiac signals—offer a psychophysiological index of interoceptive awareness and attentional states. This study investigated whether HEPs systematically track self-reported meditation depth in expert Vipassana practitioners, a tradition emphasizing the coupling of sustained bodily attention with non-reactivity. Thirty expert Vipassana meditators completed two sessions of 35-minute silent meditation with simultaneous ECG and 64-channel scalp EEG recordings. Self-reported meditation depth was assessed via real-time ratings. HEPs were extracted (−200 to 800ms relative to R-peak) and analyzed using ANOVAs and cluster-based permutation testing across five meditative depth levels. Mixed linear models examined associations between HEP amplitude range (high vs. low depth) and post-session psychological outcomes. HEPs robustly tracked meditation depth, with channel C3 showing significant variations across depth levels (p=2.22e-118, η²=5.55). Greater HEP modulation correlated with reduced mood disturbance (p = 7.06e-10), increased vigor (p=3.84e-23), decreased fatigue (p=2.28e-02), and enhanced decentering (p=1.25e-06). Notably, these neural dynamics did not covary with traditional meditation tracking metrics like frontal-midline theta power. HEPs provide a novel, ecologically valid, personalized neural index of meditation depth, linking interoception with contemplative state changes. We propose that sustained HEP enhancements, reflecting heightened cardio-cortical modulation, may underlie the therapeutic efficacy of meditation-based interventions, particularly for psychopathologies involving disrupted interoception.
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